Acabada la guerra

Acabada la guerra, celebró cinco triunfos: cuatro después de la derrota de Escipión, en el mismo mes, pero con algunos días de intervalo, y uno más después de haber vencido a los hijos de Pompeyo. El primero y mas sobresaliente de todos fue el de las Galias, le siguió el de Alejandría, luego el del Ponto, a continuación de éste el africano, y en último lugar el de Hispania, cada uno con aparato y pompa diferentes. El día del triunfo gálico, al atravesar el Velabro, casi salió despedido del carro, al
que se le había roto un eje, y subió al Capitolio a la luz de las antorchas, con cuarenta elefantes que portaban candelabros a su derecha y a su izquierda. En su triunfo del Ponto llevó, entre las andas del cortejo, un rótulo de tres palabras, "llegué, vi, vencí", que no pretendía, como en las demás ocasiones, resaltar las hazañas de la guerra, sino la particularidad de la rapidez con que la llevó a término.

Suetonio. Vidas de los doce césares. Julio César, 37.

Tras haber vuelto de Hispania

Tras haber vuelto de Hispania a Roma, pasando a Macedonia derrotó por fin a Pompeyo en la batalla de Farsalia, después de haberlo tenido sitiado durante casi cuatro meses tras inmensas fortificaciones y, persiguiéndolo en su huida a Alejandría, cuando descubrió que había sido asesinado, emprendió una guerra con el rey Ptolomeo (que veía que también a él le tendía emboscadas) especialmente ardua, ya que ni el lugar ni el tiempo le eran favorables, sino que se desarrolló en invierno y dentro de las murallas de un enemigo muy bien pertrechado y muy astuto, mientras que él mismo carecía de todo y no se encontraba preparado. Vencedor en ella, entrego el reino de Egipto a Cleopatra y a su hermano menor, por temor a convertirlo en provincia romana para que fuese un día, en manos de un gobernador lo bastante impetuoso, cuna de revoluciones. De Alejandría pasó a Siria y de allí al Ponto, porque le urgían a ello las noticias sobre Farnaces, hijo de Mitrídates el Grande, que por entonces se había levantado en armas aprovechando la ocasión favorable y cuya arrogancia se habia ya visto incrementada por numerosos éxitos. Al quinto día de su llegada, a las cuatro horas de haber salido a su encuentro, lo derrotó por completo en una sola batalla, razón por la que a menudo mencionaba la suerte de Pompeyo, que había alcanzado su principal gloria militar gracias a un tipo de enemigos tan ineptos para la guerra. Luego vencio a Escipión y a Jubal, que reanimaban en Africa los restos de su partido, y a los hijos de Pompeyo en Hispania.

Suetonio. Vidas de los doce césares. Julio César, 35.

El resumen de las acciones

El resumen de las acciones que a continuacion emprendió es, por orden cronológico, el siguiente: ocupo Piceno, Umbría y Etruria, sometió a su autoridad e hizo dimitir a Lucio Domicio, que con motivo del estado de guerra había sido nombrado su sucesor y ocupaba Corfinio con una guarnición, y se dirigió, siguiendo la costa del mar Adriático, a Brindisi, adonde se habían refugiado los cónsules
y Pompeyo con la intencion de cruzar el mar cuanto antes. Después de haber fracasado en su intento de impedir con todo tipo de obstáculos su partida, volvió sobre sus pasos en direccion a Roma, habló a los senadores sobre la situación política, y marchó contra las mejores tropas de Pompeyo, que se encontraban en Hispania a las órdenes de los tnes legados Marco Petreyo, Lucio Afranio y Marco Varrón, no sin antes declarar a sus amigos que iba contra un ejercito sin general y que de allí volvería contra un general sin ejército. Y aunque le hicieron retrasarse el asedio de Marsella, que le había cerrado las puertas en su camino, y una extrema escasez de víveres, logró, sin embargo, rápidamente una total victoria.

Suetonio. Vidas de los doce césares. Julio César, 34

Él pasó la jornada a la vista de todos

Él pasó la jornada a la vista de todos, asistiendo como espectador a unos combates de gladiadores; un poco antes de anochecer tomó un baño y entró en el comedor, donde estuvo por poco tiempo con los invitados a la cena; cuando había ya oscurecido se levantó, departió amablemente con los presentes y les pidió que aguardasen su vuelta; con anterioridad había dicho a unos pocos de sus amigos que lo siguieran, pero no todos por el mismo camino sino cada uno por un sitio. Montó en uno de los carruajes de alquiler y en un primer momento se dirigió por otro camino, pero después torció en dirección a Ariminio. Una vez llegado al río que separa la Galia Cisalpina del resto de Italia—Rubicón es su nombre— , se puso a reflexionar, pues según se iba aproximando más y más al peligro sentía vértigo ante la envergadura de su propia audacia; después detuvo la marcha. Mientras duró esta parada, en silencio y para sí mismo sopesó repetidamente su decisión, oscilando entre una y otra posibilidad y cambiando innumerables veces de opinión; también comunicó largamente sus dudas con los amigos presentes, entre ellos Asinio Polión, tratando de conjeturar los grandes males que causaría a la humanidad el paso del río y también la memoria de la posteridad sobre este episodio. Finalmente, cediendo a un impulso, como si abandonara la reflexión y se dejara llevar hacia el futuro, pronunció la frase que es el preludio común de quienes se lanzan a empresas difíciles y osadas: «Lancemos el dado», y procedió a cruzar el río. El resto del trayecto lo hizo ya a la carrera, y cayendo sobre Ariminio antes del alba ocupó la ciudad. Se dice también que la noche antes del paso del río tuvo un sueño nefando, pues le pareció tener comercio inconfesable con su propia madre.

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas. Julio César, 32.

En esto se anunció que César se había apoderado de Arimino

En esto se anunció que César se había apoderado de Arimino, gran ciudad de Italia, y que marchaba directamente hacia Roma con todo su ejército. Pero esta noticia era falsa, pues marchaba con no más de trescientos caballeros y cinco mil soldados de infantería. Él no había esperado al resto de sus tropas, que estaban al otro lado de los Alpes, porque prefería lanzarse por sorpresa contra los enemigos cuando ellos estaban en desorden y no esperaban su ataque, antes que darles tiempo de prepararse para el combate. Así pues, cuando llegó a orillas del río Rubicón, que marcaba el límite de la provincia que se le había concedido, se detuvo en silencio y dedicó un tiempo a reflexionar consigo mismo sobre la magnitud de su atrevimiento. Después, como aquellos que se lanzan desde un precipicio a un abismo profundo, hizo callar a la razón, apartó la vista del peligro y, gritando ante los presentes sólo estas palabras en griego: «La suerte está echada», hizo que su ejército cruzase el río.

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas. Pompeyo, 60.

Ante sus dudas, se le ofreció la siguiente señal

Ante sus dudas, se le ofrecio la siguiente señal prodigiosa. Un hombre de extraordinaria estatura y belleza aparecio de repente, sentado en un lugar cercano, tocando una flauta; habiendo acudido en masa para oirle, ademas de los pastores, una multitud de soldados de los puestos vecinos, y entre estos tambien trompetas, le arrebato a uno de ellos su instrumento, se lanzo hacia el rio y, comenzando a tocarlo con enorme aliento, se dirigio a la otra orilla. Entonces dijo César:  "Vayamos a donde nos llaman los prodigios de los dioses y la iniquidad de nuestros enemigos. La suerte esta echada".

Suetonio. Vida de los doce césares. Julio César, 32.

Al tener conocimiento de estos hechos

Al tener conocimiento de estos hechos, César arenga a sus soldados. Les relata las injurias que, en todo tiempo, le han hecho sus enemigos; se queja de que Pompeyo haya sido inducido y arrastrado por ellos por envidia y resentimiento de su gloria, mientras que el propio César siempre había favorecido y ayudado a Pompeyo en sus cargos y dignidades. Se lamenta de que se haya sentado un precedente en la república al perseguir y oprimir con las armas el derecho de veto de los tribunos que había sido restablecido en años anteriores. Sila, que había despojado de todas las prerrogativasa la potestad tribunicia, sin embargo le había dejado el libre derecho del veto; Pompeyo, con la apariencia de haberles restituido lo perdido, les había arrebatado incluso los derechos que antes poseían. Cuantas veces se había decretado que los magistrados procurasen que la república no sufriera ningún daño, fórmula y decreto del senado con que se llama a las armas al pueblo romano, se había hecho con motivo de leyes peligrosas, de violencia por parte de los tribunos, de división del pueblo en bandos, habiéndose apoderado de los templos y lugares elevados; y les muestra que estos hechos de tiempos pasados fueron expiados con la muerte de Saturnino y de los Gracos. En aquella circunstancia no se había producido ni siquiera pensado nada semejante; no se había promulgado ninguna ley; no se había tratado de agitar al pueblo; no se había producido ninguna escisión. Les exhorta a que defiendan contra sus enemigos el prestigio y la dignidad del general bajo cuyo mando habían servido felizmente a la república durante nueve años, habían librado muchos combates victoriosos y pacificado toda la Galia y Germania. Gritan unánimemente los soldados de la legión XIII que se
encontraba allí (pues la había llamado al principio de aquel movimiento: las restantes aún no habían llegado): que estaban dispuestos a defender a su general y a los tribunos de la plebe, de las injurias de sus enemigos.

Julio César. Guerra Civil, 1, 7.

Hasta aquí, pues, las que se dice fueron sus actividades

Hasta aquí, pues, las que se dice fueron sus actividades antes de su mando en las Galias. Esta época —con las guerras que libró a continuación y las campañas con las que domeñó la Galia— supone como si dijéramos un nuevo comienzo en su carrera, pues le hizo adoptar un nuevo género de vida y
encaminarse a nuevas empresas. Allí tuvo ocasión de revelarse como un guerrero y estratega en absoluto inferior a los generales más grandes y admirados del pasado; es más, si se lo compara con los Fabios, los Escipiones o los Metelos, con los militares de su tiempo o de la época inmediatamente anterior —Sila, Mario, los dos Lúculos o el propio Pompeyo, cuya gloria florecía entonces por todo lo alto gracias a su polifacético talento militar—, con sus hazañas César sobrepasa a todos ellos, al uno por la dificultad de los lugares en que combatió, al otro por la extensión de tierra conquistada, a éste por el número y fortaleza de los enemigos vencidos, a aquél por la singularidad y doblez de los pueblos que se supo conciliar, al uno por su moderación y mansedumbre para con los prisioneros, al otro por sus regalos y favores hacia sus compañeros de campaña, y a todos por el gran número de batallas libradas y de enemigos aniquilados. En efecto, durante los escasos diez años que duró la guerra de las Galias, tomó por la fuerza más de ochocientas ciudades, sometió a trescientas naciones y se enfrentó en diferentes batallas a tres millones de enemigos, acabando con la vida de un millón y capturando el mismo número de prisioneros.

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas. César, 15.

Having entered upon his office

Having entered upon his office, he introduced a new regulation, that the daily acts both of the senate and people should be committed to writing, and published. He also revived an old custom, that an officer should precede him, and his lictors follow him, on the alternate months when the fasces were not carried before him. Upon preferring a bill to the people for the division of some public lands, he was opposed by his colleague, whom he violently drove out of the forum. Next day the insulted consul made a complaint in the senate of this treatment; but such was the consternation, that no one having the courage to bring the matter forward or move a censure, which had been often done under outrages of less importance, he was so much dispirited, that until the expiration of his office he never stirred from home, and did nothing but issue edicts to obstruct his colleague's proceedings. From that time, therefore, Caesar had the sole management of public affairs; insomuch that some wags, when they signed any instrument as witnesses, did not add " in the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus," but, "of Julius and Caesar;" putting the same person down twice, under his name and surname. The following verses likewise were currently repeated on this occasion:

“Non Bibulo quidquam nuper, sed Caesare factum est;
Nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini.”

“Nothing was done in Bibulus's year:
No; Caesar only then was consul here.”

The land of Stellas, consecrated by our ancestors to the gods, with some other lands in Campania left subject to tribute, for the support of the expenses of the government, he divided, but not by lot, among upwards of twenty thousand freemen, who had each of them three or more children. He eased the publicans, upon their petition, of a third part of the sum which they had engaged to pay into the public treasury; and openly admonished them not to bid so extravagantly upon the next occasion. He made various profuse grants to meet the wishes of others, no one opposing him; or if any such attempt was made, it was soon suppressed. Marcus Cato, who interrupted him in his proceedings, he ordered to be dragged out of the senate-house by a lictor, and carried to prison. Lucius Lucullus, likewise, for opposing him with some warmth, he so terrified with the apprehension of being criminated, that to deprecate the consul's resentment, he fell on his knees. And upon Cicero's lamenting in some trial the miserable condition of the times, he the very same day, by nine o'clock, transferred his enemy, Publius Clodius, from a patrician to a plebeian family; a change which he had long solicited in vain. At last, effectually to intimidate all those of the opposite party, he by great rewards prevailed upon Vettius to declare, that he had been solicited by certain persons to assassinate Pompey; and when he was brought before the rostra to name those who had been concerted between them, after naming one or two to no purpose, not without great suspicion of subornation, Caesar, despairing of success in this rash stratagem, is supposed to have taken off his informer by poison.

Suetonio. Vidas de los doce césares. Julio César, 20.

Entretanto, Pompeyo

Entretanto, Pompeyo, que, a consecuencia de la guerra mitridàtica, había llegado a un gran grado de
gloria y de poder, pretendía que el senado ratificara cuantas numerosas concesiones había hecho a reyes, príncipes y ciudades. La mayoría de los senadores, no obstante, se oponían por envidia, y en especial Lúculo, quien había dirigido la guerra contra Mitrídates antes que Pompeyo y consideraba la victoria sobre aquél como obra suya porque le había dejado a Pompeyo el rey en un estado extremo de debilidad. Craso cooperaba con Lúculo en este asunto. Pompeyo, por consiguiente, se encolerizó y trabó amistad con César, y le prometió bajo juramento que lo apoyaría en sus aspiraciones al consulado. Y este último lo reconcilió de inmediato con Craso. Así, estos tres hombres, teniendo
el máximo poder sobre todos, se coaligaron en sus intereses mutuos. Un escritor romano, Varrón, abarcando esta coalición en un solo libro escribió Tricáranos. El senado, sospechando de ellos, eligió a Lucio Bibulo para compartir el consulado con César a fin de contrarrestar su poder.

Apiano. Historia romana, 2, 2, 9.

As for Marcus Cato

As for Marcus Cato, who was in general an upright man and displeased with any innovation but was able to exert no influence either by nature or by education, he did not himself make any complaint against the motion, but without going into particulars urged them to abide by the existing system and take no steps beyond it. At this Caesar was on the point of dragging Cato out of the very senate-house and casting him into prison. The latter gave himself up quite readily to be led away and not a few of the rest followed him; one of them, Marcus Petreius, being rebuked by Caesar because he was taking his departure before the senate was yet dismissed, replied: "I prefer to be with Cato in his cell rather than here with you." Abashed at this speech Caesar let Cato go and adjourned the senate, saying only this much in passing: "I have made you judges and lords of the law so that if anything should not suit you, it need not be brought into the public assembly; but since you are not willing to pass a decree, that body itself shall decide."

Dión Casio. Historia romana, 38, 3.

On accomplishing this he thought he had gained

On accomplishing this he thought he had gained a sufficient means of access to the consulship and set out hastily, even before his successor arrived, to the elections. He decided to seek the position even before asking for a triumph, since it was not possible to hold a festival beforehand. He was refused the triumph, for Cato opposed him with might and main. However, he let that go, hoping to perform many more and greater exploits and celebrate corresponding triumphs, if elected consul. Besides the omens previously recited, on which, he at all times greatly prided himself, was the fact that a horse of his had been born with clefts in the hoofs of its front feet, and bore him proudly, whereas it would not endure any other rider. Consequently his expectations were of no small character, so that he willingly resigned the triumphal celebration and entered the city to canvass for office. Here he courted Pompey and Crassus and the rest so skillfully that though they were still at enmity with each other, and their political clubs were likewise, and though each opposed everything that he learned the other wished, he won them over and was unanimously appointed by them all. This evidences his cleverness in the greatest degree that he should have known and arranged the occasions and the amount of his services so well as to attach them both to him when they were working against each other.

Dión Casio. Historia romana, 37, 54.

On the expiration of his Praetorship

On the expiration of his Prætorship, Cæsar received Iberia for his province, but as he had a difficulty about arranging matters with his creditors, who put obstructions in the way of his leaving Rome, and were clamorous, he applied to Crassus, then the richest man in Rome, who stood in need of the vigour and impetuosity of Cæsar to support him in his political hostility to Pompeius. Crassus undertook to satisfy the most importunate and unrelenting of the creditors, and having become security for Cæsar to the amount of eight hundred and thirty talents, thus enabled him to set out for his province. There is a story that as Cæsar was crossing the Alps, he passed by a small barbarian town which had very few inhabitants and was a miserable place, on which his companions jocosely observed, "They did not suppose there were any contests for honors in such a place as that, and struggles for the first rank and mutual jealousy of the chief persons:" on which Cæsar earnestly remarked, "I would rather be the first man here than the second at Rome." Again in Spain, when he had some leisure and was reading the history of Alexander, he was for a long time in deep thought, and at last burst into tears; and on his friends asking the reason of this, he said, "Don't you think it is a matter for sorrow, that Alexander was king of so many nations at such an early age, and I have as yet done nothing of note?"

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas: César, 11.

Now Cicero was a friend of Clodius

Now Cicero was a friend of Clodius, and in the affair of Catilina found him a most zealous assistant and guardian of his person; but as Clodius in answer to the charge relied on not having been in Rome at the time, and maintained that he was staying in places at a very great distance, Cicero bore testimony that Clodius had come to his house and spoken with him on certain matters; which was true. However people did not suppose that Cicero gave his testimony from regard to truth, but by way of justifying himself to his wife Terentia. For Terentia had a grudge against Clodius on account of his sister Clodia, who was supposed to wish to marry Cicero, and to be contriving this by the aid of one Tullus, who was one of the nearest companions and intimates of Cicero, and as Tullus was going to Clodia, who lived near, and paying attention to her, he excited suspicion in Terentia. Now as Terentia was of a sour temper and governed Cicero, she urged him to join in the attack on Clodius and to give testimony against him. Many men also of the highest character charged Clodius by their testimony with perjury, disorderly conduct, bribing of the masses, and debauching of women. Lucullus also produced female slaves to testify that Clodius had sexual commerce with his youngest sister when she was the wife of Lucullus. There was also a general opinion that Clodius debauched his other two sisters, of whom Marcius Rex had Terentia and Metellus Celer had Clodia to wife, who was called Quadrantaria, because one of her lovers put copper coins for her in a purse pretending they were silver and sent them to her; now the smallest copper coin the Romans called Quadrans. It was with regard to this sister that Clodius was most suspected. However as the people on that occasion set themselves against those who bore testimony and combined against Clodius, the judices being afraid procured a guard for their protection, and most of them gave in their tablets with the writing on them confused. It turned out that those who were for acquitting him were the majority, and some bribery was also said to have been used. This led Catulus to say when he met the judices, “Indeed you did ask for a guard to protect you, for you were afraid that some one should take your money from you.” Upon Clodius saying to Cicero that his evidence had no credit with the judices, Cicero replied, “However, five-and-twenty of the judices gave me credit, for so many of them voted against you; but thirty of them gave you no credit, for they did not vote for your acquittal till they had received their money.” Cæsar, however, when called, gave no evidence against Clodius, and he denied that he had convicted his wife of adultery, but that he had put her away, because Cæsar’s wife ought not only to be free from a shameful act, but even the report of it.

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas: Cicerón, 29.

While Pompeia was now celebrating this festival

While Pompeia was now celebrating this festival, Clodius, who was not yet bearded, and for this reason thought that he should not be discovered, assumed the dress and equipment of a female lute-player and went to the house looking just like a young woman. Finding the door open, he was safely let in by a female slave who was in the secret, and who forthwith ran off to tell Pompeia. As there was some delay and Clodius was too impatient to wait where the woman had left him, but was rambling about the house, which was large, and trying to avoid the lights, Aurelia's waiting-woman, as was natural for one woman with another, challenged him to a little mirthful sport, and as he declined the invitations, she pulled him forward and asked who he was and where he came from. Clodius replied that he was waiting for Abra the maid of Pompeia, for that was the woman's name, but his voice betrayed him, and the waiting-woman ran with a loud cry to the lights and the rest of the company, calling out that she had discovered a man. All the women were in the greatest alarm, and Aurelia stopped the celebration of the rites and covered up the sacred things: she also ordered the doors to be closed and went about the house with the lights to look for Clodius. He was discovered lurking in the chamber of the girl who had let him in, and on being recognised by the women was turned out of doors. The women went straightway, though it was night, to their husbands to tell them what had happened; and as soon as it was day, the talk went through Rome of the desecration of the sacred rites by Clodius, and how he ought to be punished for his behaviour, not only to the persons whom he had insulted, but to the city and the gods. Accordingly one of the tribunes instituted a prosecution against Clodius for an offence against religion, and the most powerful of the senators combined against him, charging him, among other abominations, with adultery with his sister, who was the wife of Lucullus. The people set themselves in opposition to their exertions and supported Clodius, and were of great service to him with the judices, who were terror-struck and afraid of the people. Cæsar immediately divorced Pompeia, and when he was summoned as a witness on the trial, he said he knew nothing about the matters that Clodius was charged with. This answer appearing strange, the accuser asked him, "Why have you put away your wife?" to which Cæsar replied, "Because I considered that my wife ought not even to be suspected." Some say that this was the real expression of Cæsar's opinion, but others affirm that it was done to please the people who were bent on saving Clodius. However this may be, Clodius was acquitted, for the majority of the judices gave in their votes written confusedly, that they might run no risk from the populace by convicting Clodius nor lose the good opinion of the better sort by acquitting him.
Plutarco. Vidas paralelas: César, 10.

Having renounced all hope of obtaining Egypt

Having renounced all hope of obtaining Egypt for his province, he stood candidate for the office of chief pontiff, to secure which, he had recourse to the most profuse bribery. Calculating, on this occasion, the enormous amount of the debts he had contracted, he is reported to have said to his mother, when she kissed him at his going out in the morning to the assembly of the people, "I will never return home unless I am elected pontiff." In effect, he left so far behind him two most powerful competitors, who were much his superiors both in age and rank, that he had more votes in their own tribes, than they both had in all the tribes together.

Suetonio. Vida de los doce césares, Julio César, 13.

Farther Spain fell to his lot as quaestor

Farther Spain fell to his lot as quaestor; when there, as he was going the circuit of the province, by commission from the praetor, for the administration of justice, and had reached Gades, seeing a statue of Alexander the Great in the temple of Hercules, he sighed deeply, as if weary of his sluggish life, for having performed no memorable actions at an ages at which Alexander had already conquered the world. He, therefore, immediately sued for his discharge, with the view of embracing the first opportunity, which might present itself in The City, of entering upon a more exalted career. In the stillness of the night following, he dreamt that he lay with his own mother; but his confusion was relieved, and his hopes were raised to the highest pitch, by the interpreters of his dream, who expounded it as an omen that he should possess universal empire; for that the mother who in his sleep he had found submissive to his embraces, was no other than the earth, the common parent of all mankind.

Suetonio. Vida de los doce césares, Julio César, 7.

He received the first proof of the good will

He received the first proof of the good will of the people towards him when he was a competitor against Caius Popilius for a military tribuneship, and was proclaimed before him. He received a second and more conspicuous evidence of popular favour on the occasion of the death of Julia the wife of Marius, when Cæsar, who was her nephew, pronounced over her a splendid funeral oration in the Forum, and at the funeral ventured to exhibit the images of Marius, which were then seen for the first time since the administration of Sulla, for Marius and his son had been adjudged enemies. Some voices were raised against Cæsar on account of this display, but the people responded by loud shouts, and received him with clapping of hands, and admiration, that he was bringing back as from the regions of Hades, after so long an interval, the glories of Marius to the city. Now it was an ancient Roman usage to pronounce funeral orations over elderly women, but it was not customary to do it in the case of young women, and Cæsar set the first example by pronouncing a funeral oration over his deceased wife, which brought him some popularity and won the many by sympathy to consider him a man of a kind disposition and full of feeling. After the funeral of his wife he went to Iberia as quæstor to the Prætor Vetus, for whom he always showed great respect, and whose son he made his own quæstor when he filled the office of Prætor. After his quæstorship he married for his third wife Pompeia he had by his wife Cornelia a daughter, who afterwards married Pompeius Magnus. Owing to his profuse expenditure (and indeed men generally supposed that he was buying at a great cost a short-lived popularity, though in fact he was purchasing things of the highest value at a low price) it is said that before he attained any public office he was in debt to the amount of thirteen hundred talents. Upon being appointed curator of the Appian Road, he laid out upon it a large sum of his own; and during his ædileship he exhibited three hundred and twenty pair of gladiators, and by his liberality and expenditure on the theatrical exhibitions, the processions, and the public entertainments, he completely drowned all previous displays, and put the people in such a humour, that every man was seeking for new offices and new honours to requite him with.

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas: César, 5.

Julius Caesar, the divine

Julius Caesar, the divine, lost his father when he was in the sixteenth year of his age; and the year following, being nominated to the office of high-priest of Jupiter, he repudiated Cossutia, who was very wealthy, although her family belonged only to the equestrian order, and to whom he had been contracted when he was a mere boy. He then married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, who was four times consul; and had by her, shortly afterwards, a daughter named Julia. Resisting all the efforts of the dictator Sylla to induce him to divorce Cornelia, he suffered the penalty of being stripped of his sacerdotal office, his wife's dowry, and his own patrimonial estates; and, being identified with the adverse faction, was compelled to withdraw from Rome. After changing his place of concealment nearly every night, although he was suffering from a quartan ague, and having effected his release by bribing the officers who had tracked his footsteps, he at length obtained a pardon through the intercession of the vestal virgins, and of Mamercus AEmilius and Aurelius Cotta, his near relatives. We are assured that when Sylla, having withstood for a while the entreaties of his own best friends, persons of distinguished rank, at last yielded to their importunity, he exclaimed-either by a divine impulse, or from a shrewd conjecture: "Your suit is granted, and you may take him among you; but know," he added, " that this man, for whose safety you are so extremely anxious, will, some day or other, be the ruin of the party of the nobles, in defence of which you are leagued with me; for in this one Caesar, you will find many a Marius."

Suetonio. Vida de los doce césares, Julio César, 1.

Sila, una vez convertido en el amo de Roma

Sila, una vez convertido en el amo de Roma, no pudiendo conseguir ni con promesas ni por miedo que Cornelia — la hija de Cina, quien había ejercido el poder en solitario— se divorciase de César, le confiscó la dote. La causa de la animosidad de César contra Sila era su parentesco con Mario: en
efecto, Mario el viejo estaba casado con Julia, hermana del padre de César, y de ella tuvo a Mario el Joven, que era primo hermano de César. Al principio Sila, ocupado como estaba en innumerables asesinatos, no se preocupaba de César, pero él, no dándose por contento, se presentó ante el pueblo para solicitar el sacerdocio, aunque era apenas un muchacho. Sila, oponiéndose en secreto, consiguió que César fracasara en su intento y comenzó a pensar en hacerlo desaparecer; cuando algunos le decían que no tenía sentido matar a un muchacho de tan poca edad, él replicó que eran ellos los que no tenían seso si eran incapaces de ver en ese muchacho a muchos Marios. Cuando este rumor llegó a oídos de César, fue a ocultarse durante bastante tiempo entre los sabinos, moviéndose de un sitio para otro; más tarde, cuando a causa de una enfermedad se hacía trasladar de noche a otra casa, cayó en manos de unos soldados de Sila que iban haciendo pesquisas por aquellos lugares para apresar a quienes se escondían. César consiguió persuadir a Cornelio, el comandante del grupo, para que lo
dejara libre previo pago de dos talentos, y acto seguido bajó a la costa y se embarcó para Bitinia con el fin de presentarse ante el rey Nicomedes. Tras pasar cierto tiempo junto a él, se embarcó de regreso y fue apresado en las inmediaciones de la isla Farmacusa por los piratas que por aquel entonces
ya infestaban el mar con grandes escuadras e innumerables embarcaciones.

Plutarco. Vidas paralelas: César, I.

Julianus after seizing the power in this way

Julianus after seizing the power in this way managed affairs in a servile fashion, paying court to the senate as well as to men of any influence. Sometimes he made offers, again he bestowed gifts, and he laughed and sported with anybody and everybody. He was constantly going to the theatre and kept getting up banquets: in fine, he left nothing undone to win our favor. However, he was not trusted; his servility was so abject that it made him an object of suspicion. Everything out of the common, even if it seems to be a kindness to somebody, is regarded by men of sense as a trap.

The senate had at one time voted him a golden statue and he refused to accept it, saying: "Give me a bronze one so that it may last; for I perceive that the gold and silver statues of the emperors that ruled before me have been torn down, whereas the bronze ones remain." In this he was not right: since 'tis excellence that safeguards the memory of potentates. And the bronze statue that was bestowed upon him was torn down after he was overthrown.

This was what went on in Rome. Now I shall speak about what happened outside and the various revolutions.There were three men at this time who were commanding each three legions of citizens and many foreigners besides, and they all asserted their claims,--Severus, Niger, and Albinus. The last-named governed Britain, Severus Pannonia, and Niger Syria. These were the three persons darkly indicated by the three stars that suddenly came to view surrounding the sun, when Julianus in our presence was offering the Sacrifices of Entrance in front of the senate-house. These heavenly bodies were so very brilliant that the soldiers kept continually looking at them and pointing them out to one another, declaring moreover that some dreadful fate would befall the usurper. As for us, however much we hoped and prayed that it might so prove, yet the fear of the moment would not permit us to gaze at them, save by occasional glances. Such are the facts that I know about the matter.


Dión Casio. Historia romana, 74, 14.

Peu de jours après la fête

Peu de jours après la fête, le vingt-et-un du mois d'Artemisios, on vit une apparition surhumaine, dépassant toute créance. Ce que je vais raconter paraîtrait même une fable, si des témoins ne m’en avaient informé : du reste, les malheurs qui survinrent ensuite n'ont que trop répondu à ces présages. On vit donc dans tout le pays, avant le coucher du soleil, des chars et des bataillons armés répandus dans les airs, s'élançant à travers les nuages et entourant les villes.

Flavio Josefo. La guerra de los judíos, VI, 5, 3.

At last, after they had struggled

At last, after they had struggled evenly for a very long space of time and many on both sides alike had fallen or been wounded, Pompey, since the larger part of his army was Asiatic and untrained, was defeated, even as had been made clear to him before the action. Thunderbolts had fallen into his camp, a fire had appeared in the air over Caesar's ditch and then fell up his own, bees had swarmed upon his military standards, and many of the victims after being led up close the very altar had run away. And so far did the effects of that contest extend to the rest of mankind that on the very day of the battle collisions of armies and the clash of arms occurred in many places: in Pergamum a kind of noise of drums and cymbals rose from the temple of Dionysus and spread throughout the city; in Tralles a palm tree grew up in the temple of Victory and the goddess herself turned about toward an image of Caesar located beside her; in Syria two young men (as they seemed) announced the result of the battle and vanished; and in Patavium, which now belongs to Italy but was then still a part of Gaul, certain birds not only brought news of it but even acted it out to some extent, for one Gaius Cornelius drew from them accurate information of all that had taken place, and narrated it to the bystanders. These things happened separately on that very same day and were naturally distrusted at the time; but when news was brought of the engagement, astonishment was felt.

Dión Casio. Historia romana, XLI, 61.

In the consulship of Gnaeus Octavius

In the consulship of Gnaeus Octavius and Gaius Scribonius a spark was seen to fall from a star and increase in size as it approached the earth, and after becoming as large as the moon it diffused a sort of cloudy daylight, and then returning to the sky changed into a torch; this is the only record of this occurring. It was seen by the proconsul Silanus and his suite.

Plinio el Viejo. Historia natural, II, 35.

In the six hundred and fifty-ninth year of the City

In the six hundred and fifty-ninth year of the City and during the consulship of Sextus Julius Caesar and L. Marcius Philippus, all Italy was in the throes of the war against allies. This war was caused by domestic quarrels. For Livius Drusus, a tribune of the plebs, was unable to appease the Latins by a decree after they had been deceived in their hope of gaining liberty and thus he roused them all to arms. Things came to such a pass that awful prodigies terrified the saddened city. At sunrise a ball of fire, accompanied by a tremendous clap of thunder, shone forth from the northern region. While the inhabitants of Arretium were breaking bread at banquets, blood flowed from the center of the loaves as if from bodily wounds. Moreover, a shower of stones, intermingled with pieces of brick, lashed the earth far and wide for seven continuous days. Among the Samnites, a flame broke forth from a vast fissure in the ground and seemed to shoot upwards into the sky. Furthermore, several Romans on a journey saw a golden globe falling headlong from the sky to the earth; when it had become large in appearance, they saw it again carried aloft from the earth toward the rising sun, where its huge bulk hid the sun itself from view. Drusus, who was worried by these ill-boding portents, was killed by an unidentified assassin in his own house.

Paulo Orosio. Historias contra los paganos, V, 18.

Cuando Mario oyó estas cosas

Cuando Mario oyó estas cosas, sirviéronle de placer y trató de sosegar a los soldados diciéndoles que de ningún modo desconfiaba de ellos, sino que, guiado de ciertos oráculos, aguardaba el tiempo y lugar oportunos para la victoria. Porque llevaba en su compañía en litera con cierto respeto a una mujer de Siria llamada Marta, que se decía era profetisa, y de su orden hacía ciertos sacrificios. Habíala antes amenazado el Senado porque se mezclaba en estas cosas y en querer predecir lo futuro; pero después, como acogiéndose a las mujeres hubiese dado algunas pruebas, y más particularmente a la de Mario, porque puesta a sus pies había casualmente adivinado entre los gladiadores quién sería el que venciese, la mandó ésta adonde estaba Mario, que la miró con admiración, y por lo común la hacía llevar en litera. Adornábase para los sacrificios con doble púrpura, y usaba de una lanza toda en rededor ceñida de cintas y coronas. Tenía esta farsa en incertidumbre a la mayor parte de las gentes, no sabiendo si el dar así en espectáculo a aquella mujer nacía de que Mario lo creyese de veras, o de que lo fingía y aparentaba. En cuanto al maravilloso prodigio de los buitres, refiérelo Alejandro Mindio, y es que antes del vencimiento se aparecían siempre dos en derredor de la hueste, y la seguían sin desampararla, siendo conocidos por sus collares de bronce: pues los soldados lograron cogerlos, y puestos los collares, los soltaron. Desde entonces, reconociendo a los soldados, les hacían agasajos, y en viéndolos éstos en las marchas se regocijaban, esperando algún buen suceso. Mostráronse por aquel tiempo diferentes señales, las que tenían en general un carácter común; pero de Ameria y Tuderto se refirió que se veían de noche en el cielo espadas y escudos de fuego, que al principio se notaban separados, mas después chocaban unos con otros en la forma y con los movimientos que lo ejecutan los hombres que pelean, y, por fin, cediendo unos y siguiendo los otros, todos venían a caer hacia Occidente. Por el propio tiempo también de Pesinunte vino Bataces, sacerdote de la gran madre, anunciando que la Diosa le había hablado desde su tabernáculo diciendo que iban los Romanos a disfrutar de la victoria y triunfo más señalados. Diole asenso el Senado, y decretó edificar a la Diosa un templo en señal de victoria, y cuando Bataces estaba para comparecer ante el pueblo con el designio de anunciarlo, se lo estorbó el tribuno de la plebe Aulo Pompeyo, llamándole impostor y echándole a empellones de la tribuna, lo que sólo sirvió para conciliar mayor crédito a su narración; porque no bien se puso Aulo en camino para su casa, disuelta la junta, cuando se le encendió una tan fuerte calentura, que se hizo cosa muy notoria y pública entre todos haber muerto de ella dentro del séptimo día.

Plutarco. Vida de Cayo Mario, 17.

Meanwhile portents had occurred

Meanwhile portents had occurred which threw the people of Rome into great fear. A river in Picenum ran the color of blood, in Etruria a good part of the heavens seemed to be on fire, at Ariminum a light like daylight blazed out at night, in many portions of Italy the shapes of three moons became visible in the night time, and in the Forum a vulture roosted for several days. Because of these portents and inasmuch as some declared that the consuls had been illegally chosen, they summoned them home. The consuls received the letter but did not open it immediately, since they were just entering upon war: instead, they joined battle first and came out victorious. After the battle the letter was read, and Furius was for obeying without discussion; but Flaminius was elated over the victory and pointed out that it had proved their choice to be correct, and he went on with vehement assertions that it was because they were jealous of him that the influential men were even falsifying heavenly warnings. Consequently he refused to depart until he had settled the whole business in hand, and he said he would teach the people at home, too, not to be deceived by relying on birds or any other such thing. So he was anxious to remain on the ground and made repeated attempts to detain his colleague, but Furius would not heed him. But since the men who were going to be left behind with Flaminius dreaded lest in their isolation they might suffer some disaster at the hands of their opponents and begged him to stay by them for a few days, he yielded to their entreaties but did not take part in any action. Flaminius traveled about laying waste the country, subjugated a few forts, and bestowed all the spoils upon the soldiers as a means of winning their favor. At length the leaders returned home and were put on trial by the senate for their disobedience (on account of their anger towards Flaminius they subjected Furius also to disgrace); but the populace was against the senate and showed emulation in Flaminius's behalf, so that it voted them a triumph. After celebrating it they laid down their office.

Dión Casio. Historia romana, VIII, 20.

También han aparecido juntas tres Lunas

También han aparecido juntas tres Lunas, como sucedió cuando fueron cónsules Cneo Domicio y Cayo Fannio, a las cuales llamaron muchos Soles nocturnos.

Plinio el Viejo. Historia natural, II, 32.

To add to the general feeling of apprehension

[8] To add to the general feeling of apprehension, information was received of portents having occurred simultaneously in several places. In Sicily several of the soldiers' darts were covered with flames; in Sardinia the same thing happened to the staff in the hand of an officer who was going his rounds to inspect the sentinels on the wall; the shores had been lit up by numerous fires; [9] a couple of shields had sweated blood; some soldiers had been struck by lightning; an eclipse of the sun had been observed; at Praeneste there had been a shower of red-hot stones; at Arpi shields had been seen in the sky and the sun had appeared to be fighting with the moon; [10] at Capena two moons were visible in the daytime; at Caere the waters ran mingled with blood, and even the spring of Hercules had bubbled up with drops of blood on the water; at Antium the ears of corn which fell into the reapers' basket were blood-stained; at Falerii the sky seemed to be cleft asunder as with an enormous rift and all over the opening there was a blazing light; [11] the oracular tablets shrank and shrivelled without being touched and one [12??] had fallen out with this inscription, "MARS IS SHAKING HIS SPEAR"; and at the same time the statue of Mars on the Appian Way and the images of the Wolves sweated blood. Finally, at Capua the sight was seen of the sky on fire and the moon falling in the midst of a shower of rain. [13] Then credence was given to comparatively trifling portents, such as that certain people's goats were suddenly clothed with wool, a hen turned into a cock, and a cock into a hen. [14] After giving the details exactly as they were reported to him and bringing his informants before the senate, the consul consulted the House as to what religious observances ought to be proclaimed. [15] A decree was passed that to avert the evils which these portents foreboded, sacrifices should be offered, the victims to be both full-grown animals and sucklings, and also that special intercessions should be made at all the shrines for three days. [16] What other ceremonial was necessary was to be carried out in accordance with the instructions of the decemvirs after they had inspected the Sacred Books and ascertained the will of the gods. [17] On their advice it was decreed that the first votive offering should be made to Jupiter in the shape of a golden thunderbolt weighing fifty pounds, gifts of silver to Juno and Minerva, and [18??] sacrifices of full-grown victims to Queen Juno on the Aventine and Juno Sospita at Lanuvium, whilst the matrons were to contribute according to their means and bear their gift to Queen Juno on the Aventine. A lectisternium was to be held, and even the freedwomen were to contribute what they could for a gift to the temple of Feronia. [19] When these instructions had been carried out the decemvirs sacrificed full-grown victims in the forum at Ardea, and finally in the middle of December there was a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn, a lectisternium was ordered (the senators prepared the couch), and a public banquet. [20] For a day and a night the cry of the Saturnalia resounded through the City, and the people were ordered to make that day a festival and observe it as such for ever.

Tito Livio. Historia de Roma, 22, 1.

During this winter many portents occurred in Rome

During this winter many portents occurred in Rome and the neighbourhood, or at all events, many were reported and easily gained credence, for when once men's minds have been excited by superstitious fears they easily believe these things. [2] A six-months-old child, of freeborn parents, is said to have shouted "Io Triumphe" in the vegetable market, whilst in the Forum [3??] Boarium an ox is reported to have climbed up of its own accord to the third story of a house, and then, frightened by the noisy crowd which gathered, it threw itself down. [4] A phantom navy was seen shining in the sky; the temple of Hope in the vegetable market was struck by lightning; at Lanuvium Juno's spear had moved of itself, and a crow had flown down to her temple and settled upon her couch; [5] in the territory of Amiternum beings in human shape and clothed in white were seen at a distance, but no one came close to them; in the neighbourhood of Picenum there was a shower of stones; at Caere the oracular tablets had shrunk in size; in Gaul a wolf had snatched a sentinel's sword from its scabbard and run off with it. [6] With regard to the other portents, the decemvirs were ordered to consult the Sacred Books, but in the case of the shower of stones at Picenum a nine days' sacred feast was proclaimed, at the close of which almost the whole community busied itself with the expiation of the others. [7] First of all the City was purified, and full-grown victims were sacrificed to the deities named in the Sacred Books; an offering of forty pounds' weight of gold was conveyed to Juno at Lanuvium, and the matrons dedicated a bronze statue of that goddess on the Aventine. [8] At Caere, where the tablets had shrunk, a lectisternium was enjoined, and a service of intercession was to be rendered to Fortuna on Algidus. [9] In Rome also a lectisternium was ordered for Juventas and a special service of intercession at the temple of Hercules, and afterwards one in which the whole population were to take part at all the shrines. [10] Five full-grown victims were sacrificed to the Genius of Rome, and C. Atilius Serranus, the praetor, received instructions to undertake certain vows which were to be discharged should the commonwealth remain in the same condition for ten years. [11] These ceremonial observances and vows, ordered in obedience to the Sacred Books, did much to allay the religious fears of the people.

Tito Livio. Historia de Roma, 21, 62.

Cuando Eubulo fue arconte en Atenas

Cuando Eubulo fue arconte en Atenas, los Romanos eligieron como cónsules a Marco Fabio y a Servio Sulpicio. Este año Timoleón el Corintio, quien había sido elegido por sus conciudadanos general de Siracusa, se preparó para su expedición a Sicilia. [2] Reclutó setecientos mercenarios y, embarcando a sus hombres en cuatro trirremes y tres navíos rápidos, levó áncoras desde Corinto. Cuando navegaba cerca de la costa recogió tres barcos más de los Leucadianos y Corcirenses, y así con diez navíos cruzó el golfo Jónico. [3] Durante este viaje, un suceso particular y extraño le ocurrió a Timoleón. El Cielo vino en soporte de su aventura y predijo su futura fama y la gloria de sus logros, porque a lo largo de toda la noche fue precedido por una antorcha llameante en el cielo hasta el momento en que el escuadrón hizo puerto en Italia. [4] Entonces Timoleón había ya oído en Corinto de las sacerdotisas de Demeter y Perséfone que, mientras dormían, las Diosas les habían dicho que acompañarían a Timoleón en su viaje a su sagrada isla. [5] Él y sus compañeros, por ello, estaba encantados, reconociendo que las Diosas estaban de hecho dándoles su apoyo. Les dedicó su mejor nave, llamándola “la nave sagrada de Demeter y Perséfone.”

Diodoro Sículo. Biblioteca histórica, XVI, 66.

At the beginning of the year

At the beginning of the year, the commissioners who had visited Aetolia and Macedonia brought back word that no opportunity had been afforded them of meeting Perseus. Some made out that he was ill; others that he was away from home; both stories being equally false. [2] It was, however, quite clear that warlike preparations were on foot, and that it would not be long before Perseus resorted to arms. In Aetolia intestine quarrels were increasing in violence day by day, and the leaders of the opposing factions refused to be kept in check by their authority. [3] As it was fully expected that there would be war with Macedonia, it was decided that portents should be expiated and prayers offered to win "the peace of the Gods," of those deities, namely, who were mentioned in the Books of Fate. [4] At Lanuvium the sight of a great fleet had been witnessed in the heavens; at Privernum the earth had brought forth dark-coloured wool; at Remens in the Veientine district there had been a shower of stones; [5] the whole of the Pomptine country had been covered with clouds of locusts; in a field in Gaul where the plough was at work, fishes emerged from the turned-up clods. [6] In consequence of these portents the Books of Fate were consulted, and the Keepers announced to what deities and with what victims sacrifices were to be offered; they further ordered special intercessions for the expiation of the portents, and also others in fulfilment of the vow taken by the people the previous year on the occasion of the pestilence. [7] All was done as the Sacred Books ordered.

Tito Livio. Historia de Roma, 42, 2.

Tengamos en cuenta a este respecto

Tengamos en cuenta a este respecto que habiendo convertido en máxima proceder siempre por la violencia,  ejecutar necesariamente sus planes y nunca ver como imposible lo que han resuelto, los romanos sin duda han obtenido a menudo un gran éxito; pero este principio también los ha expuesto a más de un desastre, especialmente en el mar. En tierra, como sólo tienen que enfrentarse con los hombres y la industria humana, la mayoría de las veces resultan vencedores. Su ardor impetuoso triunfa sobre una fuerza que responde a la de ellos. Si a veces son derrotados, esto no es más que una rara excepción. Pero cuando se trata de luchar contra el cielo o las olas, experimentan terribles decepciones. Esto es lo que sucedió en esta circunstancia, como en muchas otras, y lo que volverá a suceder, hasta que corrijan el exceso de audacia y confianza que los persuade de que no existe época en que la tierra y el océano puedan estar cerrados para ellos.

Polibio. Historia, I, 37, 7-10.